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Between
968 and 750 BC, Villanovan cultures in Italy were established from which
the Etruscan cities grew. The Etruscans named their territory Etruria
and included the entire region of central Italy. Between the tenth and
eighth century BC, there was a drift from scattered village settlements
to urban communities. The prevalence of the practice of cremation was
replaced by inhumation. Land was cleared on a massive scale and trade
began with the Aegean.
The
origin of the Etruscans is controversial. They were a non-Indo-European
people. The Greek historian Herodotus, of the fifth century BC, tells
us that the Etruscans were from Lydia, in Asia Minor who left their
homeland due to a famine.
Others
believe that these Etruscans were a part of the Pelasgians (Sea Peoples
of Lemnos) whose ancestors were the Canaanites, who later were known
as Phoenicians as there are many ancient references that use the terms
Tyrrhenian and Pelasgian interchangeably. (Hellanicus of Lesbos of the
5th century states that Pelasgians arrived in Italy and changed their
name to Tyrrhenians.)
Virgil
also states that the Etruscans were Lydians and Seneca (d.65 A.D.) states
that Asia claims the Etruscans.
The
Etruscans themselves, referred to themselves as Rasenna, though the
Greeks and Romans refer to them as Etrusci, Tusci, Tyrrheni or Tyrseni.
Modern Italians refer to them as Etrusci and the name of the Etruscan
Sea as the Tyrrhenian.
Later
historians state that the Etruscans were indigenous to the peninsula
but modern historians believe that the Etruscans arrived in Italy from
a more advanced civilization of the Mediterranean about the tenth century
BC and merged into the indigenous Italian population resulting in the
Etruscan civilization.
A
stone, the Lemnos Stele, dated 600 BC and written in a language similar
to the Etruscan was found in a warrior's tomb along with artifacts similar
to the Etruscan. The implication is that Lemnos may have been a small
community with strong ties to the Etruscans, perhaps an isolated colony
of Pelasgians or Etruscan pirates.
Etruscan
mariners were often pirates, as were other contemporary societies. Evidence
of a large export trade of amphorae and metal ingots supports knowledge
of properous trade. The Etruscans of Italy held rich farmlands, forests
and mineral resources. Increasing trade and the application of new techniques,
especially in metal extraction, greatly increased the wealth of the
Etruscans. As their wealth grew, they developed a powerful aristocracy
living in stone palaces. Rich tombs around the cities of Tarquinia,
Caere, Vulci and Veii are a testimony to the increased power, wealth
and authority of the Etruscan civilization. The Etruscans were advanced
builders and engineers and are responsible for the sewerage and reclaimed
swampy lowland that would later become Rome.
Between
750 and 600 BC, the Etruscans were heavily influenced in art and culture
by Greek colonies in Etruscan territory. Grapes were first introduced
into Italy during this period. This was also a period of Eastern influence
with evidence of Egyptian and Eastern artifacts. In 616 BC, Tarquinius
Priscus became the first Etruscan to rule Rome. About 550 BC, the Etruscans
expanded into the Po Valley, Rome and into Campania.
The highpoint of Etruscan civilization occurred in 535 BC, with the
control of Corsica. In the sixth century BC, the Etruscans dominated
the Tyrrhenian and Adriatic Seas, both of which bear Etruscan names.
The Etruscan influence covered a vast area of the Italian peninsula
and Etruscan merchants reached throughout the Mediterranean ports, rivaling
the Greeks and the Phoenicians. As the Etruscans continued to expand
their territories, they came into conflict with their traditional allies,
the Carthagenians as well as the Greeks of southern Italy.
 Etruscan Lion's Head 5th century BC
About
545 BC, Eturia and Carthage formed an alliance in defence of the Greeks.
About 600 BC, the Carthagenians had been the undisputed masters of the
western Mediterranean but news reached them that Phocaeans from Ionia
had landed warships at the mouth of the Rhone in southern Gaul and established
a base , Massalia (Marseilles). The Carthagenians had been defeated,
threatening Carthagenian trade not only with Liguria in Italy, the shores
of Provence and Catalonia in Spain, but also the important tin route
from Cornwall across Gaul. The Carthagenians continued to expand from
Massalia eastward, establishing bases at Nice and Antibes and soon their
warships were assembling off the coast of Spain. Carthage began to mobilize
forces in preparation for war with Greece.
Eturia
was even more threatened than Carthage, as the Greeks threatened to
seal the Tyrrhenian Sea from Gaul to Sicily. The Etruscan cities seemed
unable to establish a united effort to confront the Greeks. About 545
BC, Greeks landed on Corsica and settled at Aldilia. Herodotus tells
us that the Greek Phocaeans of Asia Minor near Smyrna had been forced
to abandon their city, Phocaea to Persian besiegers under Harpagus,
a Median general, who had established Cyrus upon the Persian throne.
Rather than accept slavery under Harpagus, the Phocaeans had gathered
their woman and children, personal possessions and set to sea. The Phocaeans
had offered to purchase islands from the Chians but had been refused,
so they set sail for Corsica and founded Alalia, merging with the former
settlers. However, the Phocaeans had plundered and pillaged the area
and the Tyrrhenians and Carthagenians united against them. A battled
ensued in which the Phocaeans suffered heavy losses with forty of their
vessels destroyed. The surviving Phocaeans gathered their women and
children and sailed to Rhegium in the toe of Italy and founded a new
city in Oenotira called Elea or Velia (modern Castellamare de Brucca).
The
Carthagenians and Tyrhenians drew lost for the possession of the prisoners
from the ships that were sunk. The Tyrrhenians took their prisoners
ashore and stoned them to death.
The
Etruscans and the Carthagenians agreed to divide the western Mediterranean
with Sardinia going to Carthage and Corsica to Etruria. The Carthagenians
held sway over the seas between Sardinia, Africa and Spain and seized
this opportunity to conquer Tartessus in Spain and establish a blockade
along the Straits of Gibraltar, blocking all foreign ships from trade
with the sea route and tin mines of Britain.
In
reaction to the Phocaeans fate, the Greeks of Cumae, constructed a harbor
in the sheltered bay of Naples at Dicearchia (modern Pozzouli). This
harbor made them an active rival to Etruria and soon Greek goods were
flooding into the Etruria through Campania. Etruscan control of the
seas reached a zenith with the battle of Alalia. Meanwhile, the Etruscans
were extending their territory north.
 Army of Lars Porsenna
In
524 BC, the Etruscans attacked Cumae, the major Greek city of Campania.
The Etruscans were defeated. In 506 BC, the Cumae Greeks and the Latians
formed an alliance and defeated Lars Porsenna at Aricia. Even the Romans
were disarmed by Lars Porcenna's forces and his forces occupied Rome.
The
fifth century marked a dark time for Etruria. Though the Etruscan cities
had reached their zenith in economic development, the Greek colonies
were experiencing overwhelming cultural and political growth. Along
the border between Etruria and Latium, the city of Rome, which was once
dominated and ruled by the Etruscans, had become independent and taken
the offensive.
The
fall of the Tarquin dynasty of Rome in 509 BC markes the beginning of
Etruscan decline. In 474 BC, the Greeks of Italy, led by the city of
Syracuse in league with Latium, defeated the Etruscans at Cumae. This
accelerated the collapse of Etruscan hegemony over Latium and was the
beginning of the wars between Rome and Veii. Following their defeat
at Cumae, the Etruscans lost control over the Tyrrhenian Sea.
 Boii Coin
With
the restriction of land and sea links to Campania, together with an
invasion of Samnites in southern Italy, the Etruscans lost Campania
in 430 BC. In the north, the Umbrians advanced, occupying Rimini and
Ravenna. In the Po Valley, an invasion of Celts (Cenomani and Boii,
as well as Insubres and Senones) added further to the demise of the
Etruscans. These Celtic tribes crossed into Italy through the Alps in
the late fifth century, virtually destroying Rome in 386 BC.
 Senone Coin
From
the fourth century BC, Etruscan power was reduced to city-states in
central Italy. The newly born Rome of the 3d century BC also contributed
to the demise of Etruria whose city-states were unable to unite together
to offer resistance. One by one they fell.
The
Etruscans did not have a centralized society dominated by a single ruler
but rather, they lived in towns and hill-top villages and enjoyed a
high degree of autonomy. The Etruscans did have a High King. The Etruscan
cities had no mutual political or military support between them. They
did share a common language, which was written. They also shared common
religon, military and social practices, though these were clearly different
than those of the Greeks or later Romans.
 A Sarcophagus of the Spouses 520-510 BC
Etruscan
religion was based upon the worship of many gods, which were responsible
for every event in nature as well as in men's lives. Every natural phenomenon
was explainable by trained priests who interpreted the event. The Etruscan
people were extremely superstitious and was fundamentally unique to
the area. Theirs was a revealed religion in that a divine being, named
Tages, arose in a plowed furrough in Teruria who then chanted the sacred
doctrine to the priest kings of Etruria. This mysterioius being then
immediately fell dead in the field. Tages was the son of Genius and
was also grandson of the highest God, Tinia (Jupiter).
For
divine revelation, the Etruscans studied the livers of sacrificed animals,
the interpretation of thunder and lightning and the libri rituales,
which contained the prophecies concerning war and space as well as the
life span of individuals, the world beyond the grave and those things
necessary to avoid disaster and placate the gods.
Special
training institutes to train the priests of the Etruscan religion. This
education included religious laws and theology as well as astronomy,
meterology, zoology, ornithology, and botany as well as a specialty
in hydraulic engineering. The Etruscans based all ritual and religious
observance upon an imaginary division of celestial and terrestial space
and every earthly action had to be coordinated with it.
For
one hundred thirty years, the Etruscans endured attacks from Rome upon
their city-state called "Lucumonie". The last Etruscan city
capitulated in 265 BC and was known as Vetzna (present Orvieto). Finally,
in 90 BC, the Etruscans became citizens of Rome. However, they supported
Marius in 80 BC and therefore their language, culture and folkways was
outlawed. The Etruscans vanished soon thereafter. Many Roman families
retained a memory of Etruscan origins including the Sempronii, Licinii,
Minucii and Larcii. Many of the Roman divinities closely resemble their
Etruscan originals.
Rome
began its attacks on Etruria about 498 BC. The Etruscans had endured
a total of 234 years of varioius conflicts, counter attacks and truces.
Neither the Carthagenians nor the Greeks offered to aid Etruria, though
the Romans would later prove to be their doom as well.
The
Roman campaign against Carthage began in 264 BC and after 118 years,
Carthage finally fell in 146 BC with the fall of the city of Dido. Carthage
hired Celtic mercenaries as well as troops from Iberia, Balearia, Libya
and Numidia to defend itself but met the same doom as had Etruria.
The
Senone tribe settled in northeastern Italy, south of the Po in the fourth
century. They crossed the Alps into Italy from Gallia Celtica around
the river Seine and defeated the Umbrians along the east coast of Italy
from Arminum to Ancona in the ager Gallicus and founded Sena Gallica
(Sinigaglia), making it their capital. The Umbrians origin is obscure
and were perhaps an indigenous population, though the Umbrian language
was related to Oscan, similar to other tribes of central Italy. The
Senones were the last Gallic tribe to settle in Italy in the fourth
century BC. In 391 BC, they invaded Etruria and laid siege to Clusium.
The Clusines appealed to Rome and the Romans intervened. The Romans
were defeated at the Allia 18 Jul 390 BC and Rome itself was captured.
For more than one hundred years the Senones were engaged in hostilities
with Rome until P. Cornelius Dolabella finally subdued them in 283 BC
and drove them out of their territory, exterminating many of the tribe's
members. Their territory was planted with new colonists from other areas,
such was the Roman fear and hate for this tribe. They disappear after
this point in history and probably joined Gauls in the area of the Danube,
Macedonia and Asia Minor. The Romans established a colony at Sena and
called it Sena Gallica in order to distinguish it from Sena Julia (Siena)
in Etruria.
The
Cenomani tribe was a branch of the Aulerci in Gallia Celtica around
moderne Maine, France. Around 400 BC, a group of the Cenomani, under
the leadership of Elitovius crossed the Alps into Italy and drove the
Etruscans south, occupying their territory. Some of their number settled
near Massilia. Their territory was probably eastward to Adige or Etsch,
the Ollius on the west and the Padus on the south. Chief among their
towns were Brixia (Brescia) and Verona, Pliny, Brixia and Cremona. They
were loyal friends of the Romans, aiding them in the Gallic War in 225
BC against the Bolii and Insubres and also in the war against Hannibal.
They did join in the revolt of the Gauls under Hamilcar Hannibal's diplomatic
agent, in 200 BC but they deserted the Insubres during the battle of
Larius Lacus (Lake Como). Defeated by Consul Gneo Cornelio Cetego in
197 BC near Mantova, they submitted to Rome and in 196 signed a treaty
with the Romans and were allowed to keep their own army. They were granted
citizenship along with the rest of Gallia Transpadana in 49 BC.
The
Boii tribe was settled in Pannonia (Bohemia or present Austria and Hungary)
and were based in the towns of Vindobunum (Vienna), Aguincoum (Budapest)
and Poetovio (Ptuj). The Boii were ruled by Alaric of the Boii. Their
army was barbarian in nature and consisted of light infantry with some
chariots. Originally of Bohemia, they seized the territory of present
Bologna (Bononia), making that city their capital. Bohemia (Boiohaemum,
meaning home of the Boii) is named for this tribe. The area that they
settled in Italy is known as Cisalpine Gaul, a province of the Roman
Republic in northern Italy. The Boii were one of the most mobile of
Celtic tribes. Those Boii remaining in Bohemia were later forced out
by the Cimbri and Teutones into France. The Boii tribe was the leading
Celtic tribe south of the Po and was the last tribe to submit to Roman
rule in 191 BC.
The
Insubres were the most powerful tribe of Gallia Cisalpina. They migrated
into Italy about 600 BC (according to Latin historian Titus Livius)
and settled around Milan (Mediolanum), which became their capital. Insubres
is the written historical name of the "Golasecca Celts", a
Celtic people who settled in the lake region north of Milan and northwest
of Lombardy, northeast Piedmont, southern Italian Switzerland. Archaeology
does not support a massive invasion in that area later than 1300 BC
with the arrival of the Caegrate culture. It is possible that the Insubres
settled in the area as early as 1300 BC and their arrival may actually
predate that time. In spite of their defeat at Clastidium (Casteggio)
by the Romans in 222 BC, they continued to be troublesome to the Romans
and aided the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the Second Punic War
218-201 BC. The Insubres had actually been looking forward to the Carthaginian's
arrival and met the Carthaginian army on the plain with cattle, grain,
wine and refreshments, inviting the Carthaginian army to take quarters
among them. The Carthiginians accepted the Insubres hospitality and
remained with them a fortnight. The Insubres were finally subdued in
196 BC and gradually disappeared with the rise of municipal communities.
Rome granted the Insubres Latin rights in 89 BC and they received full
citizenship in 49 BC. Livy claimed that the Insubres were actually the
Aedui from the area of modern Burgundy, but this is questionable.
For
more detailed information about these Celtic tribes, please see this
site's Rome, A History.
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Ancestors of Italy
Amalarico
I King of Visigoths b. 502 Italy married Clotilde, daughter of Clovis
the Great
Alarico
II Visigodos of Tolosa and Thiudigotho of Rome b. abt 478
Theodoric
"the Great" King of the Ostrogoths, King of Rome and Audefleda
of Merovinga.
Arcadius
I (383-408) Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire and Eudoxia of Eastern
Roman Empire
Constantius
III d. 421 Emperor of Western Roman Empire and Aelia Galla Placida
of Roman Empire.
Theodoric
"the Great" King of the Romans d. 526 and Theodora of Spain.
Valentinian
III d. 454 Emperor of the Western Roman Empire and Licinia Eudoxia
of Eastern Roman Empire.
Charles
II "the Lame" of Naples, King of Naples d. 1309 and Mary
Arpad of Hungary.
Adalbert
I d'Ivrea, Margrave of Ivrea d. 923 and Ermengarde of Tuscany
Berenger
di Friuli, King of Italy d. 924 and Bertila of Spoleto.
Gisulf
II de Friuli d. 611 and Romilde of the Bavarii Agliofinges.
Roger
de Hauteville, Count of Sicily d. 1101 and Adelaide of Savona de Savona.
Louis
II "le Jeune" de Italia, King of Italy d. 875 and Engeberge
Altort
Roger
I de Lauria, Signore de Loria, d. 1265 and Bella d'Amichi.
Waccho
Lethingi, King of the Langobards d. 539 and Austrisa of the Gepidae.
Jean
II de Luxembourg d. 1397 and Marguerite d'Enghien
Otto
I Montferrat, Marquis of Montferrat and Miss Placenza.
Lambert
I Nantes, Comte de Nantes d. 836
Ermengarde
de Sabran, Comte de Ariano d. 1310 and Alice de Baux.
Anscar/
Amchier II Spoleto, Marquis de Spoleto, de Camerino d. 940
Adelaide
Manfredi de Susa de Torino, Countess of Torino d. 1091 and Otto Eudes
Maurienne, Comte de Turino.
Bonifacio
II Tuscany, Count of Liguria, Lucca d. 823, don of Bonifacio, a Frank
of Lucca Tuscany.
Robert
Orsini Ursins, Count of Nola d. abt 1350 and Sueva de Baux.
Bonifacio
de Vasta, Margrave of Savona d. aft 1125 and Alicia de Maurienne.
Manfredo
II del Vasto, Marquis of Saluzzo d. 1214 and Adilasia de Montferrat.
Etruscan Rulers
Osiniu
early 1100's
Mezentius
c. 1100
Lausus
Tyrsenos
Velsu
8th century
Larthia
Armnestos
Lars
Porsena late 6th century
Thefarie
Velianas late 500's-early 400's
Aruns
about 500
Volumnius
mid 400's
Lars
Tolomnius late 400's
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